01-03-2023, 08:32 AM
Astronomy
SENIOR CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
ANDREW FRAKNOI, FOOTHILL COLLEGE
DAVID MORRISON, NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
SIDNEY C. WOLFF, NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY (EMERITUS)
1.1 The Nature of Astronomy 13
1.2 The Nature of Science 13
1.3 The Laws of Nature 15
1.4 Numbers in Astronomy 15
1.5 Consequences of Light Travel Time 17
1.6 A Tour of the Universe 18
1.7 The Universe on the Large Scale 23
1.8 The Universe of the Very Small 27
1.9 A Conclusion and a Beginning 28
2 Observing the Sky: The Birth of Astronomy 31
2.1 The Sky Above 32
2.2 Ancient Astronomy 42
2.3 Astrology and Astronomy 49
2.4 The Birth of Modern Astronomy 54
3 Orbits and Gravity 69
3.1 The Laws of Planetary Motion 70
3.2 Newton’s Great Synthesis 76
3.3 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation 81
3.4 Orbits in the Solar System 85
3.5 Motions of Satellites and Spacecraft 88
3.6 Gravity with More Than Two Bodies 91
4 Earth, Moon, and Sky 103
4.1 Earth and Sky 104
4.2 The Seasons 107
4.3 Keeping Time 114
4.4 The Calendar 117
4.5 Phases and Motions of the Moon 120
4.6 Ocean Tides and the Moon 125
4.7 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon 129
5 Radiation and Spectra 145
5.1 The Behavior of Light 146
5.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 153
5.3 Spectroscopy in Astronomy 161
5.4 The Structure of the Atom 166
5.5 Formation of Spectral Lines 172
5.6 The Doppler Effect 176
6 Astronomical Instruments 189
6.1 Telescopes 190
6.2 Telescopes Today 196
6.3 Visible-Light Detectors and Instruments 206
6.4 Radio Telescopes 210
6.5 Observations outside Earth’s Atmosphere 217
6.6 The Future of Large Telescopes 222
7 Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System 233
7.1 Overview of Our Planetary System 234
7.2 Composition and Structure of Planets 246
7.3 Dating Planetary Surfaces 251
7.4 Origin of the Solar System 254
8 Earth as a Planet 265
8.1 The Global Perspective 266
8.2 Earth’s Crust 270
8.3 Earth’s Atmosphere 278
8.4 Life, Chemical Evolution, and Climate Change 283
8.5 Cosmic Influences on the Evolution of Earth 288
9 Cratered Worlds 303
9.1 General Properties of the Moon 303
9.2 The Lunar Surface 310
9.3 Impact Craters 315
9.4 The Origin of the Moon 320
9.5 Mercury 321
10 Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars 335
10.1 The Nearest Planets: An Overview 335
10.2 The Geology of Venus 342
10.3 The Massive Atmosphere of Venus 347
10.4 The Geology of Mars 350
10.5 Water and Life on Mars 359
10.6 Divergent Planetary Evolution 371
11 The Giant Planets 379
11.1 Exploring the Outer Planets 379
11.2 The Giant Planets 385
11.3 Atmospheres of the Giant Planets 391
12 Rings, Moons, and Pluto 407
12.1 Ring and Moon Systems Introduced 408
12.2 The Galilean Moons of Jupiter 409
12.3 Titan and Triton 418
12.4 Pluto and Charon 423
12.5 Planetary Rings 430
13 Comets and Asteroids: Debris of the Solar System 449
13.1 Asteroids 450
13.2 Asteroids and Planetary Defense 460
13.3 The “Long-Haired” Comets 463
13.4 The Origin and Fate of Comets and Related Objects 473
14 Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System 489
14.1 Meteors 490
14.2 Meteorites: Stones from Heaven 495
14.3 Formation of the Solar System 500
14.4 Comparison with Other Planetary Systems 506
14.5 Planetary Evolution 511
15 The Sun: A Garden-Variety Star 523
15.1 The Structure and Composition of the Sun 524
15.2 The Solar Cycle 535
15.3 Solar Activity above the Photosphere 540
15.4 Space Weather 544
16 The Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse 559
16.1 Sources of Sunshine: Thermal and Gravitational Energy 559
16.2 Mass, Energy, and the Theory of Relativity 562
16.3 The Solar Interior: Theory 572
16.4 The Solar Interior: Observations 578
17 Analyzing Starlight 591
17.1 The Brightness of Stars 591
17.2 Colors of Stars 595
17.3 The Spectra of Stars (and Brown Dwarfs) 598
17.4 Using Spectra to Measure Stellar Radius, Composition, and Motion 605
18 The Stars: A Celestial Census 621
18.1 A Stellar Census 621
18.2 Measuring Stellar Masses 625
18.3 Diameters of Stars 632
18.4 The H–R Diagram 637
19 Celestial Distances 655
19.1 Fundamental Units of Distance 655
19.2 Surveying the Stars 659
19.3 Variable Stars: One Key to Cosmic Distances 668
19.4 The H–R Diagram and Cosmic Distances 675
20 Between the Stars: Gas and Dust in Space 687
20.1 The Interstellar Medium 688
20.2 Interstellar Gas 692
20.3 Cosmic Dust 700
20.4 Cosmic Rays 707
20.5 The Life Cycle of Cosmic Material 710
20.6 Interstellar Matter around the Sun 712
21 The Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the
Solar System
723
21.1 Star Formation 724
21.2 The H–R Diagram and the Study of Stellar Evolution 733
21.3 Evidence That Planets Form around Other Stars 736
21.4 Planets beyond the Solar System: Search and Discovery 740
21.5 Exoplanets Everywhere: What We Are Learning 748
21.6 New Perspectives on Planet Formation 754
22 Stars from Adolescence to Old Age 765
22.1 Evolution from the Main Sequence to Red Giants 766
22.2 Star Clusters 772
22.3 Checking Out the Theory 776
22.4 Further Evolution of Stars 783
22.5 The Evolution of More Massive Stars 792
23 The Death of Stars 803
23.1 The Death of Low-Mass Stars 804
23.2 Evolution of Massive Stars: An Explosive Finish 809
23.3 Supernova Observations 816
23.4 Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars 824
23.5 The Evolution of Binary Star Systems 830
23.6 The Mystery of the Gamma-Ray Bursts 833
24 Black Holes and Curved Spacetime 851
24.1 Introducing General Relativity 851
24.2 Spacetime and Gravity 857
24.3 Tests of General Relativity 860
24.4 Time in General Relativity 863
24.5 Black Holes 865
24.6 Evidence for Black Holes 873
24.7 Gravitational Wave Astronomy 876
25 The Milky Way Galaxy 889
25.1 The Architecture of the Galaxy 890
25.2 Spiral Structure 899
25.3 The Mass of the Galaxy 903
25.4 The Center of the Galaxy 905
25.5 Stellar Populations in the Galaxy 912
25.6 The Formation of the Galaxy 915
26 Galaxies 929
26.1 The Discovery of Galaxies 930
26.2 Types of Galaxies 933
26.3 Properties of Galaxies 939
26.4 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 942
26.5 The Expanding Universe 945
27 Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Supermassive Black Holes 959
27.1 Quasars 959
27.2 Supermassive Black Holes: What Quasars Really Are 967
27.3 Quasars as Probes of Evolution in the Universe 975
28 The Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies 989
28.1 Observations of Distant Galaxies 990
28.2 Galaxy Mergers and Active Galactic Nuclei 997
28.3 The Distribution of Galaxies in Space 1004
28.4 The Challenge of Dark Matter 1018
28.5 The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies and Structure in the Universe 1025
29 The Big Bang 1041
29.1 The Age of the Universe 1042
29.2 A Model of the Universe 1049
29.3 The Beginning of the Universe 1058
29.4 The Cosmic Microwave Background 1064
29.5 What Is the Universe Really Made Of? 1072
29.6 The Inflationary Universe 1078
29.7 The Anthropic Principle 1083
30 Life in the Universe 1095
30.1 The Cosmic Context for Life 1096
30.2 Astrobiology 1099
30.3 Searching for Life beyond Earth 1108
30.4 The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 1117
A How to Study for an Introductory Astronomy Class 1135
B Astronomy Websites, Images, and Apps 1137
C Scientific Notation 1143
D Units Used in Science 1147
E Some Useful Constants for Astronomy 1149
F Physical and Orbital Data for the Planets 1151
G Selected Moons of the Planets 1153
H Future Total Eclipses 1157
I The Nearest Stars, Brown Dwarfs, and White Dwarfs 1161
J The Brightest Twenty Stars 1165
K The Chemical Elements 1167
L The Constellations 1173
M Star Chart and Sky Event Resources 1179
for more detail download ..
https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/os...omy-LR.pdf
SENIOR CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
ANDREW FRAKNOI, FOOTHILL COLLEGE
DAVID MORRISON, NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
SIDNEY C. WOLFF, NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY (EMERITUS)
1.1 The Nature of Astronomy 13
1.2 The Nature of Science 13
1.3 The Laws of Nature 15
1.4 Numbers in Astronomy 15
1.5 Consequences of Light Travel Time 17
1.6 A Tour of the Universe 18
1.7 The Universe on the Large Scale 23
1.8 The Universe of the Very Small 27
1.9 A Conclusion and a Beginning 28
2 Observing the Sky: The Birth of Astronomy 31
2.1 The Sky Above 32
2.2 Ancient Astronomy 42
2.3 Astrology and Astronomy 49
2.4 The Birth of Modern Astronomy 54
3 Orbits and Gravity 69
3.1 The Laws of Planetary Motion 70
3.2 Newton’s Great Synthesis 76
3.3 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation 81
3.4 Orbits in the Solar System 85
3.5 Motions of Satellites and Spacecraft 88
3.6 Gravity with More Than Two Bodies 91
4 Earth, Moon, and Sky 103
4.1 Earth and Sky 104
4.2 The Seasons 107
4.3 Keeping Time 114
4.4 The Calendar 117
4.5 Phases and Motions of the Moon 120
4.6 Ocean Tides and the Moon 125
4.7 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon 129
5 Radiation and Spectra 145
5.1 The Behavior of Light 146
5.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 153
5.3 Spectroscopy in Astronomy 161
5.4 The Structure of the Atom 166
5.5 Formation of Spectral Lines 172
5.6 The Doppler Effect 176
6 Astronomical Instruments 189
6.1 Telescopes 190
6.2 Telescopes Today 196
6.3 Visible-Light Detectors and Instruments 206
6.4 Radio Telescopes 210
6.5 Observations outside Earth’s Atmosphere 217
6.6 The Future of Large Telescopes 222
7 Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System 233
7.1 Overview of Our Planetary System 234
7.2 Composition and Structure of Planets 246
7.3 Dating Planetary Surfaces 251
7.4 Origin of the Solar System 254
8 Earth as a Planet 265
8.1 The Global Perspective 266
8.2 Earth’s Crust 270
8.3 Earth’s Atmosphere 278
8.4 Life, Chemical Evolution, and Climate Change 283
8.5 Cosmic Influences on the Evolution of Earth 288
9 Cratered Worlds 303
9.1 General Properties of the Moon 303
9.2 The Lunar Surface 310
9.3 Impact Craters 315
9.4 The Origin of the Moon 320
9.5 Mercury 321
10 Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars 335
10.1 The Nearest Planets: An Overview 335
10.2 The Geology of Venus 342
10.3 The Massive Atmosphere of Venus 347
10.4 The Geology of Mars 350
10.5 Water and Life on Mars 359
10.6 Divergent Planetary Evolution 371
11 The Giant Planets 379
11.1 Exploring the Outer Planets 379
11.2 The Giant Planets 385
11.3 Atmospheres of the Giant Planets 391
12 Rings, Moons, and Pluto 407
12.1 Ring and Moon Systems Introduced 408
12.2 The Galilean Moons of Jupiter 409
12.3 Titan and Triton 418
12.4 Pluto and Charon 423
12.5 Planetary Rings 430
13 Comets and Asteroids: Debris of the Solar System 449
13.1 Asteroids 450
13.2 Asteroids and Planetary Defense 460
13.3 The “Long-Haired” Comets 463
13.4 The Origin and Fate of Comets and Related Objects 473
14 Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System 489
14.1 Meteors 490
14.2 Meteorites: Stones from Heaven 495
14.3 Formation of the Solar System 500
14.4 Comparison with Other Planetary Systems 506
14.5 Planetary Evolution 511
15 The Sun: A Garden-Variety Star 523
15.1 The Structure and Composition of the Sun 524
15.2 The Solar Cycle 535
15.3 Solar Activity above the Photosphere 540
15.4 Space Weather 544
16 The Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse 559
16.1 Sources of Sunshine: Thermal and Gravitational Energy 559
16.2 Mass, Energy, and the Theory of Relativity 562
16.3 The Solar Interior: Theory 572
16.4 The Solar Interior: Observations 578
17 Analyzing Starlight 591
17.1 The Brightness of Stars 591
17.2 Colors of Stars 595
17.3 The Spectra of Stars (and Brown Dwarfs) 598
17.4 Using Spectra to Measure Stellar Radius, Composition, and Motion 605
18 The Stars: A Celestial Census 621
18.1 A Stellar Census 621
18.2 Measuring Stellar Masses 625
18.3 Diameters of Stars 632
18.4 The H–R Diagram 637
19 Celestial Distances 655
19.1 Fundamental Units of Distance 655
19.2 Surveying the Stars 659
19.3 Variable Stars: One Key to Cosmic Distances 668
19.4 The H–R Diagram and Cosmic Distances 675
20 Between the Stars: Gas and Dust in Space 687
20.1 The Interstellar Medium 688
20.2 Interstellar Gas 692
20.3 Cosmic Dust 700
20.4 Cosmic Rays 707
20.5 The Life Cycle of Cosmic Material 710
20.6 Interstellar Matter around the Sun 712
21 The Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the
Solar System
723
21.1 Star Formation 724
21.2 The H–R Diagram and the Study of Stellar Evolution 733
21.3 Evidence That Planets Form around Other Stars 736
21.4 Planets beyond the Solar System: Search and Discovery 740
21.5 Exoplanets Everywhere: What We Are Learning 748
21.6 New Perspectives on Planet Formation 754
22 Stars from Adolescence to Old Age 765
22.1 Evolution from the Main Sequence to Red Giants 766
22.2 Star Clusters 772
22.3 Checking Out the Theory 776
22.4 Further Evolution of Stars 783
22.5 The Evolution of More Massive Stars 792
23 The Death of Stars 803
23.1 The Death of Low-Mass Stars 804
23.2 Evolution of Massive Stars: An Explosive Finish 809
23.3 Supernova Observations 816
23.4 Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars 824
23.5 The Evolution of Binary Star Systems 830
23.6 The Mystery of the Gamma-Ray Bursts 833
24 Black Holes and Curved Spacetime 851
24.1 Introducing General Relativity 851
24.2 Spacetime and Gravity 857
24.3 Tests of General Relativity 860
24.4 Time in General Relativity 863
24.5 Black Holes 865
24.6 Evidence for Black Holes 873
24.7 Gravitational Wave Astronomy 876
25 The Milky Way Galaxy 889
25.1 The Architecture of the Galaxy 890
25.2 Spiral Structure 899
25.3 The Mass of the Galaxy 903
25.4 The Center of the Galaxy 905
25.5 Stellar Populations in the Galaxy 912
25.6 The Formation of the Galaxy 915
26 Galaxies 929
26.1 The Discovery of Galaxies 930
26.2 Types of Galaxies 933
26.3 Properties of Galaxies 939
26.4 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 942
26.5 The Expanding Universe 945
27 Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Supermassive Black Holes 959
27.1 Quasars 959
27.2 Supermassive Black Holes: What Quasars Really Are 967
27.3 Quasars as Probes of Evolution in the Universe 975
28 The Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies 989
28.1 Observations of Distant Galaxies 990
28.2 Galaxy Mergers and Active Galactic Nuclei 997
28.3 The Distribution of Galaxies in Space 1004
28.4 The Challenge of Dark Matter 1018
28.5 The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies and Structure in the Universe 1025
29 The Big Bang 1041
29.1 The Age of the Universe 1042
29.2 A Model of the Universe 1049
29.3 The Beginning of the Universe 1058
29.4 The Cosmic Microwave Background 1064
29.5 What Is the Universe Really Made Of? 1072
29.6 The Inflationary Universe 1078
29.7 The Anthropic Principle 1083
30 Life in the Universe 1095
30.1 The Cosmic Context for Life 1096
30.2 Astrobiology 1099
30.3 Searching for Life beyond Earth 1108
30.4 The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 1117
A How to Study for an Introductory Astronomy Class 1135
B Astronomy Websites, Images, and Apps 1137
C Scientific Notation 1143
D Units Used in Science 1147
E Some Useful Constants for Astronomy 1149
F Physical and Orbital Data for the Planets 1151
G Selected Moons of the Planets 1153
H Future Total Eclipses 1157
I The Nearest Stars, Brown Dwarfs, and White Dwarfs 1161
J The Brightest Twenty Stars 1165
K The Chemical Elements 1167
L The Constellations 1173
M Star Chart and Sky Event Resources 1179
for more detail download ..
https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/os...omy-LR.pdf